Org B: Chapter 5

• Motivation Concepts
  
  • Defining Motivation
    
    • Motivation is the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
      
      • Intensity = how hard a person tries
        
      • The intensity has to be channeled in a direction that benefits the organization
        
      • Persistence = how long a person can maintain effort
        
  • Early Theories of Motivation
    
    • The hierarchy of needs theory
      
    • Theories x and y
      
    • The two-factor theory
      
      • Why these three theories?
        
        • They represent a foundation from which the contemporary theories have grown
          
        • Practicing managers still regularly use these theories in explaining motivation
          
  • Hierarchy of Needs Theory
    
    • With every human there exists a hierarchy of five needs
      
      • Physiological -- hunger, thirst, bodily needs, etc.
        
      • Safety -- security from physical and emotional harm
        
      • Social -- affection, acceptance, friendship, etc.
        
      • Esteem -- internal: self-respect, achievement; external: status, recognition, etc.
        
      • Self-actualization -- achieving potential, self-fulfillment, etc.
        
    • To motivate someone, Maslow says you must know what level they're currently on and focus on satisfying the needs at or above that level.
      
    • It's a pyramid with physiological at the bottom.
      
    • Lower-order are physiological and safety -- satisfied externally
      
    • Higher-order are social, esteem, self-actualization -- satisfied internally.
      
  • Theories x and y
    
    • McGregor's Theories.
      
      • Theory x -- 4 assumptions held by managers
        
        • Employees inherently dislike work
          
        • Employees must be coerced, controlled, or threatened in order to achieve goals
          
        • Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek direction whenever possible
          
        • Most workers place security above all other factors
          
      • Theory Y -- 4 positive assumptions
        
        • Employees can view work as being play
          
        • People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they're committed to objectives
          
        • Average person can learn to accept and seek responsibility
          
        • The ability to make innovative decisions is not only for those with management.
          
    • Theory x assumes lower-order needs dominate individuals
      
    • Theory y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals
      
  • Two-Factor Theory
    
    • Also known as the 'motivation hygiene theory'
      
      • Hygiene factors
        
        • Conditions surrounding the job -- pay, relations with others, quality of supervision, etc.
          
• Contemporary Theories of Motivation
  
  • McClelland's Theory of Needs -- focuses on 3 needs
    
    • Need for achievement
      
    • Need for power
      
    • Need for affiliation
      
  • Cognitive evaluation theory
    
    • Proposes that the introduction of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, for work that is internally rewarding, tends to decrease overall motivation.
      
      • When extrinsic rewards are given to someone for performing an interesting task, it causes intrinsic interest in the task itself to decline.
        
      • Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, whereas tangible rewards undermine it.
        
  • Goal-setting theory
    
    • Specific goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of "do your best."
      
    • Why are people more motivated by goals?
      
      • We're not distracted
        
      • We have to work harder to attain them
        
      • When it's difficult people persist in striving to attain them
        
      • Difficult goals help us to discover strategies to help us do the job better.
        
  • Management by objectives
    
    • Emphasizes participatively setting goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable.
      
    • Four common ingredients to MBO programs
      
      • Goal specificity
        
      • Participation in decision making
        
      • An explicit time period
        
      • Performance feedback
        
  • Self-efficacy Theory
    
    • Refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
      
    • The goal setting theory and the self-efficacy theory don't compete with each other, they complement each other.
      
    • Self-efficacy can be increased in four ways
      
      • Enactive mastery
        
      • Vicarious modeling
        
      • Verbal persuasion
        
      • Arousal
        
  • Equity Theory
    
    • Proposes that the comparisons between what we put into our jobs and what we get out of them can affect motivation.
      
      • People compare the job inputs and outcomes to those of others.
        
      • Four referent comparisons
        
        • Self-inside
          
        • Self-outside
          
        • Other-inside
          
        • Other-outside
          
    • Four moderating variables
      
      • Gender
        
      • Length of tenure
        
      • Level in the organization
        
      • Amount of education or professionalism
        
    • Distributive justice -- the employee's perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
      
    • Organizational justice -- an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
      
    • Procedural justice -- the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.
      
      • Two key elements of procedural justice
        
        • Process control -- you can present one's point of view about desired outcomes
          
        • Explanations -- clear reasons given to a person by management for the outcome
          
    • To promote fairness in the workplace, managers should consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made
      
  • Expectancy theory
    
    • Employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe:
      
      • Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal
        
      • A good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards, such as bonus, promotion, etc.
        
      • The rewards will satisfy the employees' personal goals
        
    • Helps to explain why a lot of workers aren't motivated on their jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by.
      
    • Some managers incorrectly assume that all employees want the same thing, thus overlooking the motivational effects of differentiating rewards.